Methodology Chapter (2) Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Methodology Chapter (2) - Dissertation Example Figure 2.1 In vitro effects of sildenafil on murine embryo development 2.1.2 In vivo effects of sildenafil on murine embryo development This part of the experiment was not conducted due to requirement for changes in the license. However, the in vivo effects on the development of oocyte would have been examined by injecting sildenafil on female mice for a period of four days with the following three doses: 0.5 mg/kg, 1.5mg/kg and 2.5mg/kg. Afterwards, the female mice would be mated naturally with males; then one-day old zygotes would be harvested from sacrificed females. The number of oocytes and corpora lutea recorded would be used to determine the rate of ovulation. Thereafter, the embryos would be grown to blastocysts again in a media not supplemented with sildenafil. The quality of development of the embryos would then be determined by examining their development rate, and assessing the numbers of the blastocyst cells (figure 2.2). Figure 2.2 In Vivo effects of sildenafil on murin e embryo development 2.1.3 Expression of PDE5a in the mouse pre-implantation embryo The experiment was conducted by examining the presence of PDE5 mRNA in murine embryos at the successive stages of embryo development. The embryos used for study were obtained from mice that had been mated naturally. On the other hand, the blastocysts had been cultured in standard conditions. 2.2 Sildenafil Citrate purification from commercially available Viagra tablets In both the in vitro and in vivo experiments, sildenafil had been cleansed from commercially available Viagra tablets by leaving 20g sephadex G-25 overnight to swell in 100ml of distilled water. A column of 80ml was then applied with the sephadex gel and equilibrated in 100ml of distilled water at room temperature. A Viagra tablet of 38mg was then placed in 91.2ml of distilled water and slowly mixed with a magnetic stirrer at room temperature for a period of twenty minutes. It was then filtered for 20 minutes under a temperature of 4 d egrees Celsius. The liquid in which sildenafil has been dissolved was then applied on the column. The column was rinsed with the Viagra solution just before it was flushed with 400ml of water to wash away any possible small molecules. This way, only sildenafil was left precipitated to resin. The column was then applied with 1% Formic acid to rinse the sildenafil off. The absorbance of the rinsed solution was then observed and according to Francis et al. (2003), the rinsed sildenafil had a sharp peak absorbance at 40ml (Figure 3.1). Figure 3.1 Elution of pure sildenafil from sephadex column After sildenafil was rinsed, the column was washed again with 160ml or distilled water to eliminate the formic acid. After the column was free of formic acid, it was then washed with 320ml of 0.2% sodium azide in order to preserve it for later use. The rinsed sildenafil was then frozen at temperatures of -80 degrees Celsius. It was then dried by freezing it in a high vacuum. This was done by first sublimating the contents for a period of 8 hours at 0.37 mbar and under a temperature of -53 degrees Celsius, then desorbing it at 0.001 mbar for 3 hours. The weight of the crystallized contents was determined by examining the rate of absorbance of sildenafil over the whole sildenafil that had been eluted, assuming that there had been a recovery rate of 60%. The eluted sildenafil was then dissolved in 0.1% formic acid in order to obtain the normal concentration of refined

Liver Functions, Anatomy and Diseases

Liver Functions, Anatomy and Diseases Sandra Marais Nikita Wiggil Charne Scott Chante Wiese   Sue-May van der Westhuizen Stephanie Willows Contents (Jump to) Introduction The Anatomy and function of the Liver Definition and description of the disease Fatty Liver Disease Symptoms PATHOPHYSIOLOGY AND ETIOLOGY OF FATTY LIVER DISEASES: Treatment and prevention Introduction The Anatomy and function of the Liver Anatomy is the science of the structure and shape of entities. It is important for the knowledge of hepatic anatomy and surgery. The liver is one of the largest organs of the human body after the skin it is the second largest. The liver is the largest gland in the human body, with an average weight of 1500g. The transverse measurements ranges between 20 and 22,5cm, its vertical measurements (close to its right/lateral surface) between 15 and 17,5cm and its antero-posterior diameter between 10 and 12,5cm. Its measurement, from opposite the vertebral column, is reduced to roughly 7,5cm. It is found underneath the diaphragm -in the right upper abdomen, mid abdomen as well as in parts of the left upper abdomen. The shape of the liver generally has the form of a wedge or a prism. According to Synington the shape resembles that of a right-angled triangular prism with the right angle rounded off. Its base faces the right and its apex to the left, the colour of the liver is dark reddish brown it has a soft degree of density, it contains a large amount of vessels and is very brittle. In an adult, it is smaller than in a fetus. In the later (side) it contributes roughly one thirty-six of the body weight. In the former (side) it contributes roughly one-eighteenth of the body weight. The liver has three surfaces namely the superior (Facies superior), inferior (Facies inferior/ visceral surface) and posterior (Facies posterior). The posterior surface is divided from the superior surface by a sharp margin. The superior surface attaches itself to the diaphragm as well as the anterior abdominal by the falciform ligament (ligamentum falciform hepatis). The falciform ligament separates the liver into a right lobe (lobus hepatis dexter) and a left lobe (lobus hepatis sinister). The right lobe is larger than the left. Five fossae divide the inferior and posterior surfaces into four lobes. The fossae are arranged like the letter ‘’H’’. The left limb of the H is divided into what is known as the left sagittal fossa (fossa sagittalis sinistra/longitudinal fissure) consisting off the fossa of the umbilical vein and the fossa for the ductus venosus. The right limb of the H consists of the fossa for the gall-bladder (fossa vesicà ¦ felleà ¦) and th e fossa for the inferior vena cava (fossa venà ¦ cavà ¦). The two limbs of the H surfs as a transverse fissure- the porta (porta hepatis/transverse fissure). The superior surface is part of is part of the left and right lobe. This surface is convex. The middle part is found behind the xiphoid process and it makes contact with the abdominal wall. It is entirely concealed by peritoneum, with the exception of the line of attachment of the flaciform ligament. The inferior surface is concave. It is aimed downward, backward as well as to the left. The surface is infused in peritoneum- the only parts that are without it, is where the gall-bladder and the liver attaches as well as at the porta hepatis. The posterior surface has a curved surface and is broad on the right, but narrow on the left. The diaphragm is attached with a triangular and coronary ligament that intertwine connective tissue, it leads to the intimate connection of the inferior vene cava that is connected with hapatic veins that holds up the posterior part of the liver. The abdominal viscera full the abdomen, where the muscular walls are in a state of tonic contraction. The superior surface of the liver fits under the diaphragm surface, so that the pressure is enough to hold the diaphragm. The lax falciform ligament creates no support for the lateral displacement and the latter creates negative pressure that is held up in the thorax (Gray, Henry. Anatomy of the Human Body. PHILADELPHIA: Lea Febiger, 1918; Bartleby.com, 2000. www.bartleby.com/107/. [DATE of Printout].) Functions of the liver The liver receives blood from two main sources: 30% is received from the hepatic arteries and 70% is received from the hepatic portal vein. The hepatic portal vein receives blood from the stomach, intestines, pancreas and spleen; which is then carried to the liver through the porta hepatis. All nutrients are absorbed by the small intestine, all nutrients reaches the liver by this route except for lipids. Arterial blood bound for the liver exists the aorta ant the celiac trunk. These arteries deliver oxygen and other materials to the liver. (SALADIN, p. 975-977) Digestion Liver produces bile; which is a mixture of water, bile salts, cholesterol and pigments of bilirubin. Bile is produced by hepatocytes in the liver. Bile passes through the bile ducts and is stored in the gallbladder. Fats are emulsificated by bile. Large fat clumps are turned into smaller pieces which makes it easy for the body to digest. Old worn oud red blood cells are destroyed by Kupffer cells in the liver. Kupffer cells pass their components to the hepatocytes. Haemoglobin is the red oxygen-carrying pigment of red blood cells, haemoglobin is metabolized into heme and globin components. Energy for the body comes from globin protein. Metabolism Liver is responsible for metabolizing carbohydrates , lipids and proteins into biologically useful materials. Blood entering the liver through the hepatic portal vein is rich in glucose from digested food. Some of this glucose is absorbed by hepatocytes. The glucose is stored as the macromolecule glycogen. Homeostasis is maintained by the absorption and release of glucose by the hepatocytes, it helps protect the body from spikes and drops that can be dangerous in the blood glucose level. Hepatocytes absorb and metabolise fatty acids to produce energy in the form of ATP. Through gluconeogenesis the hepatocytes convert glycerol and other lipid components into glucose. Cholesterol is a lipid which can also be produced by hepatocytes and gets excreted from the body as a component of bile. Amino acids is a component from dietary proteins. Amine groups are removed from the amino acids, by the hepatocytes, which is further converted into ammonia and urea. Urea can be excreted in urine as a waste product. Urea is less toxic than ammonia. Detoxification Hepatocytes cells of the liver monitor the contents of the blood and toxic substances are removed before they reach the rest of the body. Alcohol and drugs are metabolised into their inactive metabolites by the enzymes in hepatocytes cells. Storage Nutrients, vitamins and minerals obtained from the blood passing through the hepatic portal system are stored in the liver. Homeostasis of blood glucose is maintained by the storage of nutrients. Vitamins such as A, D, E, K and B12 is stored in the liver. Minerals such as iron and copper are stored in the liver. Production Vital protein components of blood plasma such as prothrombin, fibrinogen and albumins are produced by the liver. Prothrombin and fibrinogen proteins are factors involved in the formation of blood clots. Albumins maintain the isotonic environment of blood. Immunity Bacteria, fungi, parasites, worn out red blood cells and cellular debris are captured and digest by Kupffer cells. Large volumes of blood are cleaned very quickly by Kupffer cells due to the large volumes of blood passing through the hepatic portal system. (www.innerbody.com/image _digeov/card10-new2.html) American journal of Physiology: Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology : physiology and pathophysiology of apoptosis in epithelial cells of the liver; pancreas and intestine. By Blake. A. Jones ; Gregory. J. Gores. Published 1 December 1997 (vol.273. no.6, G1174-G1188) Definition and description of the disease Fatty liver disease â€Å"Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a clinical and pathological syndrome.† (Zeng, et al., 2008) The main feature of NAFLD is the swelling of the (liver cells) hepatocytes because of pathological factor, alcohol excluded, that injure the liver. NAFLD is ranged from fatty liver alone to steatohepatitis, steatonecrosis and non-alcoholic steatohepartitis (NASH). (NASH) is only a stage in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. NAFLD may have the potential to progress into cirrhosis and liver failure.† Liver –biopsy features include steatosis, mixed inflammatory cell-infiltration, hepatocytes ballooning and necrosis, glycogen nuclei, Mallory’s hyaline and fibrosis.† (Angulo, 2002) According to Jansen (2004) NASH is an under diagnosed liver disease characterized by steatosis, necroinflammation and fibrosis. NASH can possibly develop into cirrhosis and hepatic cellular carcinoma. NASH incorporate mixed acute and chronic lobular inflammation, zone 3 perisinusiodal fibrosis and ballooning (Brunt, et al., 1999). Alcoholic liver disease. Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) includes a variety of spectrum of injury that can be from simple steatosis to frank cirrhosis. There are 3 groups of histological stages of ADL. Fatty liver or simple steatosis, alcoholic hepatitis and chronic hepatitis with hepatic fibrosis or cirrhosis. ALD can be caused by different types of factors including dose, duration and type of alcohol consumption and risk factors like obesity iron overload ect. Fatty Liver Disease Symptoms Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease causes no signs or symptoms that can be noticed but when it is noticed, it show signs of: Fatigue Pain in the right upper abdomen Weight loss. Inflammation and scarring of the liver Possible progression to liver failure. Symptoms consists of four (4) stages namely Simple fatty liver disease ( steatosis), Non-alcoholic Fatty liver Disease (NAFLD), Fibrosis And Cirrhosis. Simple fatty liver (Steatosis)- There are no clear symptoms and it can only be discoverd by an abnormal blood test result. Non-alcoholic Steotohepatitis (NASH)- It is the most aggressive form of this condition, it causes the liver to become inflamed creating a dull or aching pain in the top right abdomen, covering the lower side of the ribs. There may be no signs of any symptoms at all and it can only be discovered by specialized testing. Fibrosis- Constant inflammation in the liver which leads to the formation of scar tissue. Cirrhosis- Over a long period of time, it creates inflammation which can lead to the loss of liver function- which may lead to creating primary cancer. ALCOHOL-RELATED (ARLD) It shows no symptoms until the liver has already been severely damaged and it causes symptoms such as: Feeling sick, weak or tired Loos of weight Loss of appetite Jaundice- the yellowing of the eyes and skin The swelling of the stomach and ankles Confusion or drowsiness The excretion or the vomiting of blood. Alcohol related fatty liver disease is constantly diagnosed because of other conditions or other tests. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY AND ETIOLOGY OF FATTY LIVER DISEASES: Fatty Liver Disease encompasses two over head segments, namely Alcoholic Liver Disease and Non Alcoholic Liver Disease. ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE (ALD) Alcoholic Liver Disease (ALD) encompasses the manifestations of the liver that is caused by the over consumption of alcohol (ethanol). It includes Fatty Liver, Alcoholic Hepatitis, and Chronic Hepatitis with liver cell fibrosis or cirrhosis.*1 Ethanol metabolization takes place in the liver. There are two main pathways of alcohol metabolism, namely alcohol dehydrogenase and cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2 E1. The first pathway works as follows: Firstly ethanol is metabolized by Alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) into Acetaldehyde in the cytoplasm. The second phase occurs in the smooth Endoplasmic reticulum of mitochondria, where Acetaldehyde is further metabolized by Aldehyde dehydrogenase into acetate. Acetate is then finally oxidized into carbon dioxide (CO2) and water. CYP 2E1 also converts ethanol into acetaldehyde (OShea, et al., 2010). Liver damage occurs in a few mutually related pathways: Acetaldehyde can form hybrid-adducts with reactive residues acting on proteins or small molecules, mediating lipid peroxidation and nucleic acid oxidation. (French, et al., 1984) During further metabolization of alcohol, Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD) is reduced. This causes a shift in the NADH/NAD ratio. A higher NADH (reduced form of NAD) concentration increases the production of fatty acids, while lower concentrations of NAD result in decreased fatty acid oxidation. This altered ratio impair the metabolization of carbohydrates and lipids, resulting in the diversion from gluconeogenesis to ketogenesis and fatty acid synthesis. The liver cells compound the fatty acids to glycerol to form triglycerides. These accumulating triglycerides result in fatty liver. This leads to oxidative stress, which plays a pivotal role in ALD development. (French, et al., 1984) Furthermore, Acetaldehyde interacts through covalent binding with reactive residues of proteins found on the membranes of liver cells. This binding results in the formation of stable protein by-products which have been shown to be immunogenic. Tissue damage and ALD may be caused by this, because the neo-antigens may induce an immune reaction with anti-body production. CYP 2 E 1, when exposed to chronicle alcohol use generates free radicals through the oxidation of Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) to NADP (OShea, et al., 2010). This exposure activates hepatic macrophages, also known as Kupffer cells, which leads to Tumor Necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha). The production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is increased by the mitochondria, which in turn was induced by the TNF-alpha. This also promotes oxidative stress, which leads to hepatocytes necrosis and apoptosis. Many alcoholics have a condition of malnutrition. The deficiency in anti-oxidants, such as vitamin E, only worsens the necrosis and apoptosis. Free radicals initiate the oxidative degradation of lipids, which causes inflammation and liver tissue becomes scarred. Although the over consumption of alcohol is the primary cause of ADL, it is not always a pre-requirement for ALD development. It is important to understand the mechanisms of liver damage. When liver cells are exposed to alcohol, ATP synthesis is reduced and the activity of mitochondrial complexes is depressed. This causes energy metabolism of liver cells to be severely weaker and results in tissue damage. Metabolization of ethanol takes place in the centrilobular area of the liver lobule. Hypoxia alters energy metabolism, therefore centrilobular hypoxia can also be responsible for liver injury. The pathophysiology of alcoholic liver disease is very complex and further in depth investigation to understand the disease and how to treat it is being done. NON-ALCOHOLIC FATTY LIVER DISEASE (NAFLD) Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease is an over arching term for a variety of conditions associated with fat depositions in liver cells. NAFLD ranges from Simple fatty liver to nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), to fibrosis and cirrhosis. The first stage of NAFDL is simple fatty liver or steatosis. It is considered harmless and only consists of a fat build up in the liver. The second stage, Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis is more serious, but not many individuals progress to this state from simple fatty liver. Two liver insults may lead to the development of NASH. With the first insult or hit, macro-vesicular steatosis (abnormal retention of lipids within a cell) occurs as a result of an excessive amount of triglycerides accumulating in the liver. The cause of triglyceride accumulation can result from excessive importation of free fatty acids from adipose tissue.*5 The accumulating lipids in the liver cells seem to be caused by insulin resistance. Insulin resistance leads to changes in the livers enzymatic pathways that control free fatty acid uptake, synthesis, degradation and the secretion of free fatty acids. A crucial paradox arises: the liver maintains its liver lipid metabolization, but carbohydrate metabolism is weakened or damaged. Hepatic steatosis caused by these factors can result into diminished hepatic free fatty acid oxidation, more hepatic lipogenesis or fewer lipids are secreted from the liver. Along with insulin resistance, obesity plays an important role in the development of NAFLD. These alterations make the liver sensitive for the second insult or hit, which is an inflammatory response and further liver damage (Carey, et al., 2013). Toxic inflammatory proteins are secreted by the cytokines in the liver.*6 Hepatocyte apoptosis, an organized form of cellular death, is a leading component of the second insult of NAFLD progression. Oxidative stress and resulting lipid peroxidation are involved in the progression of NAFLD to NASH. The term â€Å"oxidative stress† is frequently used to describe the imbalances in redox couples. *7 This metabolic reaction produce too much reactive free radicals called reactive oxygen species (ROS). This process usually occurs in the mitochondria. Lipid peroxidation can lead to changes in the cell membrane fluidity and these alterations cause tissue damage. Fibrosis is the third stage of NAFLD. NASH develops to form fibrosis if it is not treated. Fibrosis occurs where chronicle inflammation in the liver results in the formation of fibrous scar tissue around hepatic cells and blood vessels. The liver still functions normally, because there is still enough healthy tissue. The forth and most severe stage of NAFLD is cirrhosis. During this stage lots of scar tissue develops. This causes the liver to shrink and change morphologically. The damage caused by cirrhosis is permanent and cannot be saved or reversed. The progression of cirrhosis is slow, but it ultimately causes the liver to stop functioning.*8 Treatment and prevention Basic therapy: you have to work out a strategic plan of the intake of calories and adjustment of diet constitution. Medium aerobic exercise and the changing of some life styles and behaviour. Weight reduction: The most important fact of weigh reduction is not the amount of weight loss but how the weight is lost. Losing weight rapidly may increase portal inflammation and fibrosis. A relatively safe goal is to lose about 1.6kg per week. Liver transplantation: For some patients liver transplantation is recommended. Metabolic states should be examined before the transplantation. A BMI >40kg lm2 is a contrain dication (Zeng, et al., 2008) Abstinence: This is a very important therapeutic intervention for patients that have ALD. Abstinence helps to decrease portal pressure and lower progression to cirrhosis.

Priesthood :: essays research papers

Priesthood The position of priesthood in the church has been evident since the earliest existence of the church. Jewish priests first were established in the seventh century BC performing religious ceremonies. They were even more established around 950 BC due to the establishment of the Temple in Jerusalem. The major role of the traditional Jewish priest was to perform sacrificial rituals. According to the Bible, the Temple was built as a place for God to live with the people. It was the holiest building that existed, and needed to be kept holy by the priests. Their role of the priests was to perform animal sacrifices to God as an offering. The priests performed these sacrifices as specialists on behalf of a community or congregation in order to restore the holiness of the community and of the Temple. It was believed that if there was sin among the people then God would not come and be with them. After the Temple was destroyed during the war with Rome, these animal sacrifices were stopped, and there were no more active Jewish priests. The religious leadership in the synagogue was led by the rabbis. In the Protestant religion there exists a "priesthood of all believers"("Priesthood", 529). This meant that each member in the community serves as his or her own priest, with direct access to communication with God. Protestants believe that the role of the priest is an "officiating mediary"("Priesthood", 529), rather than a one who performs ritual sacrifices. This stems from the Protestant belief that Jesus Christ served as "the ultimate" sacrifice, and therefore there is no use in animal sacrifices. Protestants also do not call their religious leaders "priests" because the name itself implies that he is of a higher level than his fellow man or that he has more access to God than others. There exists two different forms of priesthood: hereditary and vocational priests. A hereditary priest is a limited position in that it can only be held by a person who a direct descendent of the tribe of Levi. This tribe is one of the original 12 tribes of Israel as set forth in Genesis 49. There exists among this tribe one High Priests who head of the other priests. He is the only priest who was allowed to view the holy Ark of the Covenant during the existence of the Temple in Jerusalem. These hereditary priests, unlike most priests in today's society, were allowed to marry in order to carry on the line of priesthood. The vocational priests are those which have been "called" to the ministry by God himself.

Kohlberg’s Moral Judgment Model

The focus of Lawrence Kohlberg’s Moral Judgment Model is to investigate and assess how the concept or consciousness about morality arises and what constitutes this perception about morality. He provides six stages of development which explains how a child obtains and develops his own idea of moral action. When a child experiences a dilemma in which he or she must be able to come up with a particular decision and actualize it, Kohlberg tells that the child’s judgment could be explain through his model. The first three stages are crucial for the reason that the child’s response is dependent on his or her initial orientation on morality. The first stage explains that a child’s response might be based on the idea of obedience and punishment. The child would act in such a way that he or she obeys what the immediate authority imposes to him or her (e. g. rules set in the house or in the school). The right action for the child would be if he or she is able to follow the rules which would also make him or her free from any form of punishment. The child would assert that he or she must not such and such acts to prevent being punished. The second stage is when the child realizes that his or her actions, whatever they are, have equivalent consequences. If he or she would act like this for the benefit or harm of others he or she might think that the same thing would be done for or against him or her. In short, his or her actions would be based on how he or she perceives the result of his or her actions which is still directed towards his or her own interests. The third stage explains that the child in this period learns that it is not all about him or her or not always geared towards his or her own satisfaction. In this stage, the child becomes conscious about how others perceive him or her. Thus, his or her actions are not just dependent on what he or she likes but also on how others would see him or her as a moral person. The child would think that â€Å"I ought not to tell a lie because others will see me as a bad person for doing so. † In short, the concept of conventional morality starts at this point.

Dttls Assignment Essay

Unit 4: Theories and principles for planning and enabling learning In modern day teaching, the onus is shifting further and further away from teacher dictated methods of educational delivery, to methods that ensure the learner is placed at the heart of teaching, and every individual within the classroom is considered and catered for. Advances in technology available to teachers has contributed to a broadening of teaching styles, but this has mainly come about through the need to differentiate teaching more effectively and break down the barriers that exist between teacher and learner. Engaging every learner is a difficult task and requires the teacher to have a plethora of knowledge of teaching methods and theories. Learners may differ in terms of age, gender, ability level, communication skills, confidence, learning styles and many other factors. The job of the teacher is to ensure these factors do not hinder individual learning and that success and achievement within the group is widespread and at a high level. Planning and implementing learning is paramount to this process. To effectively plan and deliver to diverse and varied groups of students, teachers can draw upon a number of teaching theories and principles put forward by educational academics. Theories of teaching and behaviour are themselves, in general, varied and diverse in the way they approach the dissemination of learning and the bringing about of desired responses. Similarly, different theories of communication have been put forward that document methods through which we as teachers can effectively converse with our students. All of these theories can provide a vital insight or tool for teachers to improve their practice and ultimately promote inclusive learning for all students. Many examples of different teaching theories are evident across academic literature. Examples of these include Classical and Operant conditioning, Kolb’s learning cycle, Gagnes 9 events of instruction, Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and Knowles’ Pedagogical and Andragogical approaches. An example of a communication theory is Berne’s (1970) transactional analysis. It is concerned with ensuring that control and understanding occurs through ommunication between groups or individuals. Berne believes that transactional analysis represents â€Å"a theory of social intercourse and used it to help people understand and improve their behaviour towards others† (Huddleston & Unwin, 1997, p115). This theory also suggests that communicating effectively will directly impact on success, motivation work rate and b ehaviour through increased understanding of the nature and demands of a task or the content of the message itself that is being communicated. If we also also consider the effectiveness of communication in the classroom and relating theoretical concepts, i. e. ehaviourist and humanistic theories, these have some distinct differences which affect greatly the approaches and techniques adopted by teachers. Behaviourist theories suggest all behaviour is ‘learned’ or that these theories bring about a recognisable ‘change’ in behaviour (Armitage, 2003). Examples of Behavioural theorists include Pavlov (Classical conditioning), Thorndike (Operant conditioning), Skinner and in terms of early behaviourist studies, Watson. These theorists along with others have over the past 100 years put forward a number of different behaviourist theories that are concerned with changing or ‘conditioning’ behaviour. Classical conditioning was pioneered by Pavlov who looked at learning by association. His famous study involved the use of dogs as a medium to facilitate associative learning. Pavlov rang a bell every time a dog was to receive food, the presence of food elicited a saliva response from the dog, which over time it associated with the sound of the bell. After a period of time, the stimulus of food was no longer produced, but the dog continued to salivate at the sound of a bell, as it now ‘associated’ this behaviour with the onset of a meal. Classical conditioning essentially elicits a reflex and an association is formed (Artmitage, 2003; www. learning-theories. com). Operant conditioning is a theory put forward by Thorndike. This theory waits for a desired behaviour to occur and then rewards it. It builds somewhat on the work done by Watson regarding trial and error learning. Perhaps the most prominent or influential behaviourist work is that done by Skinner. Skinner adopted an operant approach to behaviourism and famously conducted experiment using rats in specially designed boxes. Skinner’s ideas revolved around the presence of a reinforcer to cause a desired behaviour to be repeated. This could be in the form of a primary reinforcer (a basic need like food) or a secondary reinforcer (such as money or praise). In the case of his rats, Skinner effectively trained them to pull certain levers to release food. Initially, the release was accidental but after a while, the rats learned to associate the arrival of food with the pressing of a lever. Skinners work revolved heavily around the need for reinforcement, reward, punishment and feedback. The scheduling and delivery of these things was also important to Skinner who suggested the timing of something like a reward was paramount to its success at brining about long term changes in behaviour. Similarly, he suggested giving punishment should occur immediately after the event in question and in a consistent manner. Also, it was skinner who introduced the concept of successive approximations – small steps towards a desired behaviour (Artmitage, 2003; www. learning-theories. com). Humanistic theories of learning are much more concerned with the individual themselves than the behaviour. Maslow identified a Hierarchy of Needs which he believed outlined the basic requirements of all individuals Figure 1 – Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (www. talkingtails. files. wordpress. com) Both humanistic and behaviourist theories have a huge application in the delivery of teaching and learning. In the curriculum area of Public Services, evidence of the use of both theories is apparent across different subject areas. Operant conditioning is embedded widely across public service lessons. This occurs on many occasions where praise is used within a fitness session to reinforce good performance. Primary reinforcers are also often used, for example, excellence certificates sometimes act as a tangible reward for students who perform well in strenuous task such as fitness testing. When coaching exercise techniques in the gym, classical conditioning is used to develop the desired response of good form. For example, when learning to perform a squat, the learner must bend their knees to a 90 degree angle. This is taught by putting a bench under the learner so that when they feel their posterior touch the surface of the bench they know to begin the upward phase of the lift. At the point of touch, they will be encouraged to reverse the process. Over time, the bench is removed from the lift but the learner still remembers the motion. Punishment is often used to discourage certain behaviour. For example, at South Devon College if a student is rude in a lesson they are given a set amount of press ups to do. Whilst punishment is deemed less effective than a positive reinforcement strategy, the section have a consistent and department wide policy towards distributing press ups which contributes to making this a more effective way to manipulate behaviour. Humanistic approaches such as Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs are also evident within the curriculum, looking at developing individuals through agendas such as Every Child Matters and through the departmental tutorial process. The teamwork and overall nature of the course is also a particularly effective medium for learners to progress through the top two stages (esteem and self actualisation) of the hierarchy. Inclusive practice is something that all teachers are ultimately striving for. Within the curriculum, inclusive practice is complicated by the both theoretical and practical element of the subject area. A teacher must look to facilitate learning for those who are academically able, practically gifted and also attempt to integrate the study of theory and practical to enhance learning as a whole. Computer based learning, for example, is common place on all courses, and although often difficult to facilitate in all subjects, such as outdoor activities, the needs of the learner and future employer is paramount. The Uniformed Public Services today use computer systems, including email, online study, and specific service systems such as Wotan, on a regular basis and so it is vital that learners are prepared for this. This also helps out those learners who may struggle with putting pen to paper. Much of what the Public Services do is very practical and so as much as possible I try to embed a practical way of delivering the course specification. For example, team building activities using equipment outdoors. This enables some learners to shine as they are more practically minded. However, an indoor table top scenario does the same job, but gives learners with different learning styles chance to shine. Linking theory to practice is related to another teaching theory put forward by Kolb (1984). Kolb’s Learning Theory Kolb’s theory is ‘based on the assumption that people learn best by doing things then thinking about how they have done them, considering both the thoughts, feelings and perceptions which emerged during the experience’ (Harkin et al. 200, p42). This makes the process of learning more efficient, relevant and enjoyable. It also promotes inclusive practice with all three learning styles (Visual, Auditory and Kinaesthetic) being catered for effectively. The nature of our learners has a significant influence on the techniques and theories we implement in the preparation and delivery of lessons. In my own teaching practice, I have exposure to both adult and child groups. This difference in age groups has a big impact in how I teach and communicate with these groups. This is linked to Knowles’ (1970) theory of Pedagogy and Andragogy. These two states relate to the differences associated with teaching these varying groups. Effective communication is required throughout all levels of teaching. Transactional analysis is strongly linked to communicating and giving feedback and reflects the way we use our voice (in terms of tone, pitch, volume and content) to relay information to our students. The way this is done will affect whether a student understands a task and understands the nature and direction of the feedback. Within pastoral support mechanisms, teachers often undertake one on one tutorial discussions with students. Depending on the situation and the learner, the teacher may adopt one of the 3 ego states (Parent, Adult, and Child) in order to most effectively converse with the student. The ego state may also change over the course of the tutorial process as the teacher gets to know the learner more. Within the classroom, communicating with learners in the form of feedback allow them to understand if they are being successful or not achieving and what they can do to improve. As teachers, it is essential we have the ability to adopt the correct ego status for the situation but also to consciously manipulate the interaction of ego states between teacher and learner. Doing this involves manipulating our own tone of voice and delivery of information and also encouraging certain behaviours and attitudes amongst our students to allow them to best understand what is being said to them. In Public Services, when feeding back to a student on their performance in a practical session, a teacher may look to switch between the adult and parent ego states to best deliver positive and negative comments to a learner. Currently I teach a subject that is well within my comfort zone, particularly as a serving member of Her Majesty’s Forces, where I can relate much of my teaching to my current role. However, I am acutely aware of the need to teach and develop my own core skills in literacy, numeracy, language and ICT. To progress in a career in the Public services, it is vital that these core skills are maximised. As mentioned previously, the ICT is developing in all aspects of our lives and as a teacher, I feel this is an aspect where I maximise my potential. My own literacy and language is adequate for the subject matter that I teach, but would be limited I believe if I were to teach another core subject. My use of voice and body language overcomes many of my shortfalls when addressing learners but may not be appropriate in other subjects. Numeracy is my weakest area and as such my teaching reflects this. As a teaching group we play to our individual strengths and so the subjects that I teach have limited numeracy base. However, this is an area that I am conscious of and it does need to be addressed. As a teacher, I teach across a range of courses from Level 1 to Level 5 and with groups ranging from 15 years old to adult learners. This necessitates that I employ a range of teaching strategies and adopt a range of learning theories to best accommodate for all my students. I feel one of my particular strengths is my adaptability to work effectively with these diverse groups and adopt different ego states through which to control these groups and facilitate their learning. Sub consciously, I feel for a long time I have been utilising many of the learning theories discussed in this assignment, however through recent further study I now feel much more confident and able to take what I perceive to be the most advantageous parts of these learning theories and implement them in my classroom. I believe a further strength of mine is to bring about certain behaviours or encourage those that are most appropriate within the classroom. Using operant conditioning ideology, I am quick to recognise and praise desired behaviour but am careful how and how often I deliver this reinforcement. Although I understand the limitations of punishment, I believe it has a place in the classroom and feel I am fairly competent at being consistent and fair with punishments/press ups. Feedback from learners is clearly an essential medium to assess one own teaching. With my adult learners I widely adopt a andragogical approach, allowing them a lot of freedom to learn in their own way. This is effective but often leads to a lack of feedback from learners in terms of how they are progressing and learning. I feel I could improve by embedding some more formative assessment methods into my andragogical style of teaching to allow for freedom within learning, but also actually more feedback for me from learners. This will ultimately help me see how they are doing, and also how I am doing in terms of teaching. For future development, I believe it is essential for me to continue to develop my use of Kolb’s ideas integrating theory into practice. This is something I believe to be essential, especially given the more practical/kinaesthetic orientation of the learners who study upon the course on which I teach. I also feel that I could benefit from more in depth investigation into the Skinner’s schedule of reinforcement linked to operant conditioning. I feel I am good at giving constructive praise but could improve by really analysing how I give feedback, especially in terms of frequency.

Robert Merton Theory Essay Example

Robert Merton Theory Essay Example Robert Merton Theory Paper Robert Merton Theory Paper It is rightfully argued that crime, whether or not in a contemporary society, is an extremely complex and multi-faceted Phenomena that has puzzled academics for many years. Theories that aim to rationalise the causes of crime and understand the origin of criminal behaviour are often criticised for being too biased or deterministic in their research studies. Many have been of great influence and seen to explain (to an extent) the cause of crime but none has fully decoded the mystery of why people commit crime. Mertons anomie theory aimed at explaining deviance from a ociological perspective as opposed to previous academic theories on crime and criminals. The first well known study of crime and criminals is that of one who is often referred to as the father of criminology, Cesar Lombroso. Lombrosos argument was based around the Darwinian theory of human evolution and his theory argued that criminals were a throw back to an earlier period of human progression. In other words, they were less evolved humans, with visible physical features such as large ears and big lips. His theory suggested that criminals were born and not made therefore, where genetically prone to criminality. Mertons argument was to the contrary. Rather than observing the individual criminal as being subhuman, he questioned societies influence on the individual. In his 1968 book, Merton argued that it no longer appears to be so obvious that man is set against society in an unceasing war between biological impulse and social restraint. The image of man as an untamed bundle of impulses begins to look like a caricature rather than a portrait. Sociological theories on crime and deviance, have always disagreed with the idea of biology being the cause of societies problems and thus, would rather emphasize the nfluence of external societal factors on the causes of crime. Individual differences are often disputed or ignored, and the explanation of the overall collective behaviour is seen to correlate with the influence of institutions. Being a sociologist, Mertons Anomie (or strain) Theory also attempts to rationalise and understand crime from such a social perspective. In his theory, which, is an adaptation of Durkheims earlier theory of anomie, Merton suggests that for most, deviance and criminality does not stem from pathological personalities but from the culture and structure of society itself2. Mertons strain theory is an adaptation of Durkheims earlier theory of anomie, which described a period of normlessness when the general value consensus was lost and people didnt know the parameters of acceptable behaviour. Unlike Durkheim however, Merton argued that anomie was not brought about by a sudden social change but by a society which assigns the same goals to all its members but affords them unequal opportunities to attain these goals. For Merton, irrespective of the role of biological impulses, there still remained the further question of why it is hat the frequency of deviant behaviour varies within different social structures and how it happens that the deviations have different shapes and patterns in different social structures. The new adapted theory employs this functionalist idea of social norms and values and suggests that people become deviant when they cannot fulfil societies expected of success through the normal, accepted, legal channels such as education, talent and hard work. Being an American sociologist, Merton utilized the idea of the idea of the American dream to illustrate his theory. Contemporary American culture appears to approximate the polar type in which great emphasis upon certain success goals occurs without emphasis upon institutional means. -Merton 1968 According to the American dream, everyone in the American society is equal as created by God. They all have not only the right, but the opportunity and ability to achieve great financial success through hard work and dedication. Mertons theory was simple- people are bombarded with such high expectations and strain is put upon them by society to succeed. Such success is measured by financial achievements and material wealth. The American dream states that everyone has the capability to own a Cadillac and a Beverly Hills mansion. but little attention is given to the accepted institutionalised means of gaining them. Some are capable of achieving such success through the socially accepted means but due to the problem of societal inequality (observably, race and gender discrimination), not all will be given the opportunity to achieve such goals. Some that cant achieve these set goals in the legal way, will turn to illegal alternatives. Merton understood the importance of individual differences however and importantly oted the fact that not everyone that was unable to achieve societys goals through the accepted means turned to deviance. His primary aim therefore, was to understand why some people conformed to the socially accepted methodology and others didnt, or became deviant. People react to societies strains in different ways and for Merton, these individual differences could be summed up in 5 groups; conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion. Individuals who fall under the conformity genre accept both the goals as well as the set methods for achieving those goals. They are the academics and those who follow the required means of achieving success. They may not always achieve the American dream but they reach a level of self sustenance which is respected. Those who are classed in Mertons innovation concept, are creators or innovators. Although they are unable to achieve societal goals through the set means, they accept the goals but invent their own means of achieving them, often illegal ways. In ritualism, individuals abandon the goals they once believed to be within their reach and dedicate themselves to their current lifestyle. They play by the rules and have a aily safe routine. Retreatism is the reaction of those who reject both the goals and the means of achieving such goals. They often retreat into the world of alcoholism and drug addiction. They escape into a non-productive, non-striving lifestyle. Finally, rebellion is the mode in which individuals not only reject the required goals and accepted means but alienate themselves from them. They seek to create a society where a closer correspondence will be made between merit, effort and reward. The main part of Merton theory that relates to crime and criminal behaviour is his Innovators strata. This is where Merton highlights the origin of modern day criminality in the western world thus this will be the main focus of this essay. Innovators, as stated above, are those who invent their own (illegal) means of achieving societys success. They are the fraudsters, drug dealers, muggers, embezzlers and even white collar criminals. It is agreeable that many monetary crimes are committed due to financial reward and his theory carries its greatest strength in its explanation of economic and white collar crime. Merton argued that the idea of the skys the limit encourage people hat already have wealth to continue to seek more. This is also seen in large corporations where businesses are expected to continue to make a profit and the businessmen cross the blurred line of what is and isnt legal in corporate finance. They become innovators as they try to find ways to improve their businesses. Indeed, this applies equally well to Britain, especially in light of the competitive market created by Thatcher in the `80s. However, where Mertons theory succeeds in explaining crime for economic gain, it fails in its explanation of other ypes of crime which are widespread in the UK. A research study that supports an element of Mertons theory is that of John M. Hagedorn. In his 1987 study entitled Homeboys, Dope fiends, Legits and New Jacks, Hagedorn interviewed 47 members of 19 Milwaukee male and female gangs. Although Merton fails to address gang crime in his theory, this study shows some understanding of anomie. The drug dealers and criminals in the gang claimed society had failed them through racism and discrimination. The only way to make a good living according to the gang members, was from the streets.

Descriptive Essay Writing

Descriptive Essay Writing Descriptive Essay Writing Descriptive Essay Writing Writing an essay is the most effective way to develop writing and thinking skills. As you already know, descriptive essay writing is an integral part of educational process in any institution. The purpose of descriptive essay writing is to deepen obtained in the course theoretical knowledge and practical knowledge on the study discipline, to inculcate skills for self-study material on the selected topic, and to teach to collect, to study and to synthesize material sources. In addition, descriptive essay writing helps to expand the presentation of the students on those sections of the course that were studied. College essay should be written on the basis of carefully examined sources, collected and processed material. Essay can be a creative work on the free topic (e.g. 'What I know about political scientist profession', 'Why does political scientist need historical knowledge' ), or on any other issue. Used material must be reworked and organically linked to a student chosen topic. Topic presentation must be specific and saturated with actual data. Attention should be drawn to the language and style of essay writing. College descriptive essay must be logically linked and have logical transitions between distinct parts, and within the text. English essay content must have a single road - all paragraph should be linked, complement and enhance one another. Essay Writing Tips Obligatory requirements to the English essay writing: Presence of the personal position and ability to defend/prove it. Clarity, including terminological. Sequence of material presentation and absence of inconsistent assertions. Depth of investigation of the topic and complete disclosure. Creativity and originality of conclusions. Evidence and wealth of factual material. Clear material structure that includes obligatory presence of introduction and conclusion; Help to Write an Essay Descriptive essay structure consists of the content, introduction, the main part, the conclusion. Introduction is the structural part of the main text. It is an initial paragraph that brings the essence of essay issue. You need to formulate the relevance and importance of selected topic, the degree of your knowledge, and include the objective of writing. Conclusion is the last paragraph that summarizes the main ideas and restates thesis statement written in the introduction. The number of the used literature for descriptive English essay depends on the degree of knowledge on the topic and the raised problem. Selection of literature for college essay writing is independent work the success of which depends on the ability to use catalogs, directories and bibliographic resources. Descriptive essay writing might seem easy, however, not all students possess good writing skills. You are welcome to become the customer of and we will write custom essay for you on any topic and of any complexity!

Definition and Examples of Judicial Rhetoric

Definition and Examples of Judicial Rhetoric According to Aristotle, judicial rhetoric is one of the three main branches of rhetoric: speech or writing that considers the justice or injustice of a certain charge or accusation. (The other two branches are deliberative and epideictic.) Also known as  forensic, legal, or judicial discourse. In the modern era, judicial  discourse is primarily employed by lawyers in trials decided by a judge or jury. See the observations below. Also see: ArgumentClassical RhetoricDeclamationDefinitions of Rhetoric in Ancient Greece and RomeWhat Are the Three Branches of Rhetoric? Etymology:  From the Latin, judgment. Judicial Rhetoric in Ancient Greece and Rome Anyone reading the classical rhetorics soon discovers that the branch of rhetoric that received the most attention was the judicial, the oratory of the courtroom. Litigations in court in Greece and Rome were an extremely common experience for even the ordinary free citizenusually the male head of a householdand it was a rare citizen who did not go to court at least a half a dozen times during the course of his adult life. Moreover, the ordinary citizen was often expected to serve as his own advocate before a judge or jury. The ordinary citizen did not possess the comprehensive knowledge of the law and its technicalities that the professional lawyer did, but it was greatly to his advantage to have a general knowledge of the strategies of defense and prosecution. As a result the schools of rhetoric did a flourishing business in training the layperson to defend himself in court or to prosecute an offending neighbor.(Edward P.J. Corbett and Robert J. Connors, Classical Rhetoric for the M odern Student, 4th ed. Oxford University Press, 1999) Aristotle on Judicial Rhetoric and the Enthymeme [J]udicial rhetoric promotes justice and identifies injustice by appealing to the law. Forensic speech accepts as given the laws of the polis, so the section on judicial rhetoric uses enthymemes to adjust particular cases to general laws (Aristotles Rhetoric). Aristotle addresses accusation and defense as well as the sources from which their enthymemes should be drawn, investigating for what, and how many, purposes people do wrong . . . how these persons are [mentally] disposed, and what kind of persons they wrong and what these people are like (On Rhetoric, 1. 10. 1368b). Because Aristotle is interested in causation in order to explain wrong-doing, he finds enthymemes particularly useful in judicial rhetoric.(Wendy Olmsted, Rhetoric: An Historical Introduction. Blackwell, 2006) The Focus on the Past in Judicial Rhetoric Judicial rhetoric concerns only past fact and the application of uncontentious moral principles, so that it affords the ideal Aristotelian orator no grounds for uncertainty. But perhaps deliberative rhetoric, since it concerns future contingencies and the more or less likely outcomes of alternative policies, is a better prospect for comparison with dialectic.(Robert Wardy, Mighty Is the Truth and It Shall Prevail? Essays on Aristotles Rhetoric, ed. by Amà ©lie Oksenberg Rorty. University of California Press, 1996) Prosecution and Defense in Judicial Rhetoric In judicial rhetoric, prosecutors often try to evoke assent to the truth of a statement such as the following: John killed Mary. That is, prosecutors try to persuade their audiences to agree with their representations of reality. Some form of resistance to their arguments is implicit in their situations because opposing arguments are expected from the defense. Aristotle emphasized the notion of dispute or debate inherent in judicial rhetoric: In the law court there is either accusation or defense; for it is necessary for the disputants to offer one or the other of these (Rhetoric, I,3,3). This sense of the word persuasion is among its more common senses.(Merrill Whitburn, Rhetorical Scope and Performance. Ablex, 2000) The Model for Practical Reason While contemporary students of practical reasoning rarely think about rhetoric, judicial reasoning is the model for modern practical reason. We typically assume that practical reasoning has to proceed from rule to case and that the point of practical reasoning is to justify our actions. . . . For Aristotle deliberation is the model for practical reason because there the Aristotelian combination of the personal and the moral is real and fundamental, while in judicial rhetoric that combination is only created by the speaker.(Eugene Carver, Aristotles Practical Reason. Rereading Aristotles Rhetoric, ed. by Alan G. Gross and Arthur E. Walzer. Southern Illinois University Press, 2000) Pronunciation: joo-dish-ul

Discretion, Accountability & Future of Policing Essay

Discretion, Accountability & Future of Policing - Essay Example The essay will explore several theories advanced in elucidating on police discretion and how effective are these policies are in addressing the challenges facing law enforcers. Current Theories on Police Discretion Several theories have been advanced to analyze the behaviour of the police in undertaking their duties. One of the theories that have been advanced to explain the approaches to policing includes the Barley and Nixon theory. According to these authors, policing is a state of analysing the needs of the people in the society with the idea of providing security. These authors explore the activities of the police in the United States during in the 80’s and offer several lessons on policing. One of the lessons that we get to learn is that the police do not prevent crime but deal with criminal situations when they arise. However, these authors advance the theory that policing is best practised when it is analysed from a professional and constitutional manner (Broderick, 19 77). For instance, they analyse the state of policing in the United States with the aim of providing solutions and setting up policing institutions. According to Barley and Nixon, through the solution of the problems facing the police we get to solve the problems associated with policing in the society. Another theory that was advanced in the analysis of policing was done by Bernard and Angel, whereby they elucidated on the aspects of the criminal justice system. Their theory analyses the differences in police discretion from a rational goal against the functional system model. Several theories are advanced by Bernard and Angle, whereby they talk of the theory of police professionalism as highlighted by Bittner in 1974. Other theories that were analysed include the theory that looks into problem-oriented issues and community policing. One of the theories that was analysed was the broken window theory, whereby researchers looked into a system where neighbourhood order was essential, using this model it was concluded that mutual regard for the system was good. The broken window theory was in effect an approach whereby people in different neighbourhoods felt safe when the police patrolled around their homes (Broderick, 1977). However, these activities had no effect in reducing the crime rate around these neighbourhoods. Most of the theories on policing were activity oriented and thus in the late 1990’s, new theories and approaches to policing were introduced to deal with realities and complexities of criminal justice. The criminal justice system is organised in a manner where the police force remain an integral part of the system. These new theories were aimed at total re-organization of entire areas of the criminal justice system. Some theories have been linked to the societal developmental changes such as economic changes or change in imprisonment rates. The court system which operates hand in hand with the police in the criminal justice system was refor med to improve on efficiency thus leading to changes in the policing sector (Gottfredson, 1979). New and improved systems of police operations were adopted across different countries with the aim of improving the effectiveness of the different police forces. For instance, the city of Cincinnati police force has adopted the use of crime prevention data obtained through research into crime (Duffee, 1980). The city has collaborated with

Osmosis Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Osmosis - Movie Review Example The disease that invaded Frank’s body is called ‘Anthrax’ which is caused by the bacteria Bacillus Anthracis. It is a deadly disease that can affect the lungs, intestines or skin. In Frank’s case it affected the lungs leading him to experience severe throat ache and flu. He was also prone to the gastrointestinal infection caused by the hard boiled egg that frank had consumed. Also Frank’s eating habits and the ten seconds rule where pushing him closer to this disease anyways. The image of this bacteria is given below: In order to cure Frank, he was given the drug Drixenol as this drug soothes colds and flu. In my opinion this movie was a good show making kids understand the immune system. This movie was close to reality in the sense that it explained the ways in which an unhealthy lifestyle can endanger the human life. What had happened to Frank could happen to anyone in real life because if one continues to dwell upon such unhealthy eating habits he is prone to major illness just like Frank. Thus this movie had a good message in a very unique

The relevance of employee engagement indices Essay

The relevance of employee engagement indices - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that employee engagement is a crucial element that influences business operations in most institutions. It facilitates democratic participation and administration of resources, for example, human resources that enhance morale. Managers are obligated to formulate superior employee engagement procedures that include the adoption of structured lines of communication, although others do not. This is to facilitate communication and formulation of superior performance strategies that focus on the participation of everyone. Employee engagement remains a hot issue with most professionals posting a diverse opinion on its suitability in measuring performance in institutions. One school of thought reports that employee engagement indices criteria form a fundamental element that provides relevant incentives for measuring performance. It acts as a scorecard guideline that measures the satisfactory level of employees and consumers in service delivery. Ho wever, another school of thought faults its use since it fails to provide clear benchmarks that can be applied to facilitate credible measurement of performance. Ideally, employees hold the requisite capacity of influencing performance in institutions. To ensure superior innovation and creativity in product development, proper employee engagement is essential. It ensures adequate sharing of ideas and formulation of policies with innovative ideas. It is crucial to note that, employee performance can be achieved when their morale is enhanced through adequate engagement in diverse aspects.

Explore a career area, which you are interested in pursuing and Research Paper

Explore a career area, which you are interested in pursuing and the area on the internet via search engines - Research Paper Example I would like to study business administration to eventually become a manager. Studying business administration is a four year commitment at the undergraduate level and two extra years at the graduate level to earn an MBA degree. Students that want to reach the managerial level should study an MBA in order to increase their chances of reaching the managerial ranks. The best thing about studying business administration is that it opens up the doors towards doing many things in the world. A person that graduates from business administration can work either in the private or public industries. There are plenty of governmental jobs available for business administration graduates. In the United States there are hundreds of thousands of business establishments. These establishments whether they are small, medium, or large size needs a person or persons to manage the business. Another alternative that business administration graduates have is to become an entrepreneur and establish your own business. A person that chooses to study business administration has a good economic future ahead for themselves. The average salary for a manager in the United States is $63,000 a year (Indeed). It takes a lot of commitment and sacrifice to work as a manager. In the managerial field 10 to 12 hour work days are typical of the profession. Managers are exempt employees that get paid on salary basis, thus overtime pay based on hourly rates does not apply. Managers are offered excellent compensation packages that include perks such as bonuses, stock options, car allowance, dental plan, and medical plan among others. Managers working in multinational corporations often travel to other locations. The managerial field is an exciting career that offers workers to opportunity to work in different business industries. When a person is studying in college they must take advantage of the opportunity to expand their horizons. Participating

Dqweek 7 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Dqweek 7 - Essay Example to do with how the powers and privileges of society, as well as within the companies themselves, are affected by large organizations . These three, Clegg, Hinings and Greenwood feel that this sociological perspective is required in order that companies can find for themselves the most suitable ways to solve their problems, ways that are both efficient an defective. . Clegg in 2002 ( p 430) drew a parallel with the planning of the Holocaust in World War II. He describes an organization then which worked at optimum efficiency, and achieved its aims effectively, but as far as moral values and ethics were concerned was totally abhorrent. He also stresses that researchers seeking both funding and access to organisations, must focus their research on real problems faced by the businesses concerned. ( page 436) Grey (2010, p 686) and Clegg (2002, 434) point out how between Europe and America there are differences in the way universities operate with Europeans generally being more open to alternative points of view. Grey talks about the ways in which systems of ranking make the positivist/functionalist viewpoint dominant in North American academic circles. He concludes that this ranking system enables the American universities and the academic journals from that part of the world to prevail when it comes to proving the knowledge creation agenda which therefore tends to fit in with their preference for the positivist/functionalist trend. Knowledge creation cannot be allowed to remain as the select domain of an elite group of American scholars and those academic journals which are overly concerned with their own rankings. There are other ways to create knowledge as our DBA programme reveals when it shows how Critical Action Learning when used by scholars who are also practitioners will also generate knowledge. Whether or not it then goes on to publication in a high ranking American journal, it can still be used within our own organisations to

Business Online Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Business Online - Essay Example The main trend in B2B e-commerce that dominates the business market in this computer age is the use of a webpage, more specifically known as a company's website. A true business entrepreneur would come up with a site that carries detailed information about the services that its company offers, enables visit to buy products or services online. This is due to the reality that online buying, selling, and trading is extremely fast and convenient. Consumers, even giant business establishments, are inclined to make dealings in the most fitting mode. Thus, the easiest mode to enhance profits is through a company website. This exchange of thoughts and sharing of contacts affect business giants such as Microsoft as well as a local business as small as an online Auto parts sale. It is true that when businessmen want to hire services or make a purchase, they are hardly ever concerned with the way the thing is presented.

Dqweek 7 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Dqweek 7 - Essay Example to do with how the powers and privileges of society, as well as within the companies themselves, are affected by large organizations . These three, Clegg, Hinings and Greenwood feel that this sociological perspective is required in order that companies can find for themselves the most suitable ways to solve their problems, ways that are both efficient an defective. . Clegg in 2002 ( p 430) drew a parallel with the planning of the Holocaust in World War II. He describes an organization then which worked at optimum efficiency, and achieved its aims effectively, but as far as moral values and ethics were concerned was totally abhorrent. He also stresses that researchers seeking both funding and access to organisations, must focus their research on real problems faced by the businesses concerned. ( page 436) Grey (2010, p 686) and Clegg (2002, 434) point out how between Europe and America there are differences in the way universities operate with Europeans generally being more open to alternative points of view. Grey talks about the ways in which systems of ranking make the positivist/functionalist viewpoint dominant in North American academic circles. He concludes that this ranking system enables the American universities and the academic journals from that part of the world to prevail when it comes to proving the knowledge creation agenda which therefore tends to fit in with their preference for the positivist/functionalist trend. Knowledge creation cannot be allowed to remain as the select domain of an elite group of American scholars and those academic journals which are overly concerned with their own rankings. There are other ways to create knowledge as our DBA programme reveals when it shows how Critical Action Learning when used by scholars who are also practitioners will also generate knowledge. Whether or not it then goes on to publication in a high ranking American journal, it can still be used within our own organisations to

The French Revolution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

The French Revolution - Essay Example The position of women in England was however, somewhat different and this attitude also spilt over into the response to the French revolution. In England, the position of women during this period was still largely subordinate to the male sex; as a result, the writers who supported the French revolution were accused of aligning themselves with the perceived low morals of Frenchwomen who participated in the carnage. Marie Antoinette was executed in October 1793, and the allegations of lesbianism and incestuous attacks on her son also contributed to the general perception in England that French women were scandalous and that their conduct was not to be emulated under any circumstances. Marie Antoinette was viewed by the French working class as the Austrian hussy, who frittered away the money that the peasants paid in taxes and this unfavourable view was also shared by people in other parts of the world, such as England. In this aspect, both the poets Williams and Yearsley are similar in that both of them were viewed unfavourably in England, as writers who were in support of the French Revolution. Although Williams’s first hand view of the French Revolution was horror at the carnage, her works on the whole, demonstrated a support for the ideals and motivation of the common people, which led to the revolution.

Causes of Film Cult Status: Donnie Darko

Causes of Film Cult Status: Donnie Darko Film Donnie Darko Abstract The following dissertation developed out of an enthusiastic interest in â€Å"Cult† film fandom and, in particular, Donnie Darko (Kelly: 2001). The desire to study the film in depth through a case study into its fandom came from my own curiosity and ambition to decipher and understand the level of fandom that surrounds the film, and how that formulated. Through reviewing and studying other academics work in the field and their own theories on cult films it acknowledged the diverse work when trying to find a solid definition and the complexities that follow the term â€Å"cult†. The research was used as the core of my study whilst examining Donnie Darko throughout the dissertation, using the work as not only a definition for cult but also theories on reception and fandom. .. By looking at the pre release of the film itself and the critical reception that followed an interesting debate is revealed: Was Donnie Darko created to become a â€Å"Cult† film? By conducting a study into the critical and fan reception of Donnie Darko it became apparent of the impact this had on the film’s cult status and also of how the cult fandom communities communicate and operate with each other in the form of dedicated fan web sites and fan message boards. By taking into consideration the various components of Donnie Darko, pre release, distribution, fan and critical reception, the conclusion of how much Donnie Darko can be represented as a Cult film can be found. It is plain to see what impact the internet had on the success of its reception with fans and revivals for re-releases, all of which point to the film being deliberately manufactured to adhere to cult sensibilities. Introduction In contemporary film and media there has always been an interest in fan studies and audience reception but there has been limited work on the specific genre of cult fandom and cult films. The research that is already available on the subject of cult films is inconclusive and does not share a common definition of what cult film is. I believe that it is possible to make a structured framework of what makes a film cult from existing research but there is insufficient study in respect of how cult films can be seen to be deliberately made. It is my hypothesis that film makers now have the knowledge to be able to construct and manipulate their films into gaining a cult audience, and that by researching this it will inform future academic discourse in the area of cult film. This piece of work will endeavour to map out the techniques used to create a cult film and thereby gain a cult audience and from this it will be possible to determine whether or not cult films are a carefully constructed and marketed text. In this dissertation, which takes the form of a case study, the 2001 Richard Kelly film Donnie Darko will be analysed in terms of how it has achieved the perceived status of being branded a cult film. The aim of this will be to define what a cult film is, and what attributes constitute a cult film, whilst looking at levels of fandom and considering whether or not cult is more ordinary than first perceived. The first section of this paper will discuss existing definitions of what cult films are, and also the problems faced when defining them. Having arrived at a solid definition of what a cult film is it will be used as the reference point when considering cult film in terms with Donnie Darko for the rest of the paper. A film’s cult status is not dependant on textual aspects alone and, in the final section of the paper, I will take a look at the reception of Donnie Darko amongst critics and general fans; this is, arguably, the most essential element to consider in terms of understanding how the status of cult film was conferred upon Donnie Darko. By referring to academic journals and contemporary reviews of the film in commercial film magazines and on websites it will be possible to arrive at an idea of how the critics formed the cult idea. Lacking a formal outlet, fan reception is harder to analyse, but by surveying fan communities online in the form of a dedicated fansite and one specifically created forum for Donnie Darko fans, it will be possible to analyse the fandom surrounding the film. Also, through analysis of focus groups of self proclaimed Donnie Darko fans, it will, through their discourse and opinions, be possible to map how cult fans react and use the text, in order to find out whether the film was constructed for this purpose. Literature Review – What Is Cult? When studying Cult Film it is first important to arrive at a robust definition of the term in order to provide clarity throughout this study. â€Å"Cult Film† is a phrase that is often used, in the context of certain films, by film reviewers, critics and the film fans alike, but arriving at an academic definition of what the terms exactly means, and the attributes a film must be seen to have to conform to a notion of a cult framework, is a difficult task. Many theorists have proposed their own notions and definitions of what makes a film cult, each formulating a different variation of what they see as essential to the make-up of a cult film. Some suggest that a â€Å"cult film† is created through its overall consumption, whilst others attribute prominence to other elements that feature within the text themselves. In their work in the area of cult film Jancovich, Stringer, Willis and Reboll also recognise that the term cult has many different meanings and connotations, asserting that â€Å"(Cult) would include entries from such seemingly disparate subgenres as â€Å"bad film†, splatterpunk, â€Å"mondo† films, and sword and sandal epics, Elvis flicks† (Sconce 1995 cited in Jancovich et al 2003:1) the list goes on but the point they are trying to make is that an overwhelmingly large group of films could potentially be considered as cult. In their work they do not set out to completely define the exact characteristics of any specific movies, describing cult films as an â€Å"essentially eclectic category† (Jancovich et al 2003:1) the work also goes on to propose that there is no one single signifier or characteristic that is occupied by every cult film but that they are formed by the viewers and critics via a â€Å"subcultural ideology† (Jancovich:2003:1), and that, in terms of film, this ideology is formed when the audience or even the film maker choose to view the films in opposition to what is thought to be mainstream cinema. An example of this would be Hollywood cinema stories that have a beginning, middle and an end whilst following a set path which leads to a resolved and happy ending in most cases. Jancovich goes on to also describe how film fans claim the title of being a cult fan by suggesting that there are two separate groups. The first set of fans that are ones that can be seen to â€Å"revere specific films as works of true artistic and political independence† (Jancovich et al: 2003:2). Examples of such works would include Stanley Kubrick’s A Clockwork Orange (1971) and more recently Quentin Tarantino’s Pulp Fiction (1994), these films although having gained much popularity can be perceived as being quite obscure and different. These differences are aesthetically pleasing for certain viewers that consider it cult. The other group of fans he describes are fans that watch films that can be viewed and celebrated for the simple fact that they have not adhered to mainstream cinema, these films, in a lot of cases, do not even have recognisable quality in terms of story or acting but are again enjoyed due to the over-the-top and often clichà ©d acting and effects. An example of this would be Sam Raimi’s Evil Dead Trilogy in the 1980’s, which included over the top gory scenes and also clichà ©d catchphrases such as when the main character Ash (Bruce Campbell) is confronted by a demon who tells him that he will â€Å"swallow his soul† before Ash replies â€Å"Swallow this† kills the demon with a shotgun blast. Such celebration and viewings of these films, known as cult fandom, came from a direct opposition to main box office Hollywood hits and certain areas of movie fans seemed to crave these over-the-top and unusual films more than the epic blockbuster. This market for alternative films was not left unnoticed by film exhibitors and the emergence of art screenings began to emerge or, as Jancovich put it, they â€Å"turned to wealthy specialist audiences through the creation of art cinemas† (Jancovich et al 2003:3). The creation of such picture houses channeled the fans of these alternative films together and became their first forum to engage with each other. This can be considered a critical step in cult fandom emerging and is pertinent in terms of this study as it can be seen to correspond with the online forums that are now widely available for fans to discuss their passions. A phenomenon which is discussed in detail below. Jancovich et al goes on to touch on the spate of technological advances that have recently begun to have a bearing on whether films gain the status of cult. For example new media outlets such as digital television, art cinemas, VHS, DVDs and most recently the internet that allow higher distribution of films, regardless of the film’s success in the mainstream cinemas. This technological revolution of distribution is described by Jancovich as â€Å"a powerful market force† (Jancovich et al 2003:4). Such a market force means that films that completely failed at the box office and have been written off by critics can nevertheless go on to gain a loyal fan base simply through buzz generated by fans telling each other about the films. A phenomenon which has become increasingly prevalent with the rise of the internet fan bases. Jancovich et al acknowledge a number of problems with the new rise in technology, the first of which being that the wide array of possible ways for the films to be seen now â€Å"threatens distinction and exclusivity†(Jancovich et al 2003) something which cult movies and their fans depend on. This is a particularly interesting notion, as it suggests that although the available media outlets allow fans a base on which to share their film interests on, it can also mean that film makers can market carefully constructed films, which adhere to all the attributes that have made many other cult films successful, directly in order to tap into a specific, pre-identified cult audience. There are examples of films being made for the specific purpose of gaining a cult status or a highly niche audience to form a cult, this warps the notion of what cult film is due to the deliberate attempt to create a fan base rather than one being spontaneously generated. This can lead to films appearing to have the textual elements of a cult film but not have the same following of that of a cult film but, rather, that of a failed mainstream film. A fan base which is essential to the idea of cult. An example of a failed cult film would be I Heart Huckabees (Russel:2004) its confusing, multi level narrative and overall unusualness, whilst seeking a cult market, has not generated any significant fan support, so cannot be considered cult as loyal fan base is a reoccurring element in any cult definition. One film that might been seen to be a successful manufacturing of a cult was The Blair Witch Project, using alternative technology, with the use of the handheld cameras, not seen before in modern Hollywood. This film can be also said to be the first film to properly use the internet as a tool for advertising their film, through a cult medium. h Be that as it may, it is not to say that any film with a fan base will be considered cult. Films such as Star Wars (Lucas) which has perhaps the biggest, obsessive fan base of any film could be perceived as being far too popular in the mainstream to be even considered as cult. This is one of the many difficulties in investigating what a cult film is but despite of this it is still essential to investigate films on many levels to identify and confirm a films cult status.The reception of a film after its release represents perhaps the biggest part in the creation of a cult film and this happens through two groups – The Fans and The Critics. First of all the viewing public play a major part in the cult success of a film and only through fandom can a film achieve a true cult status. Cult films could be labeled through critics calling it so in a review, this can cause a domino effect and influence fans to begin acknowledging the film as having cult status, due to the academic labeling of cult. Critical approval though is not as concrete evidence of a films status, as the slating of a film by a critic could in turn create a higher cult following for that film.Harper and Mendik in their work have put forward a number of characteristics of films that are considered cult after analyzing a number of cult films. They point towards futuristic ideas, the paranormal, scattered and complex narratives, gory violence and events that cannot be explained, this are seen to be essential to being able to put films into a cult category (Harper Mendik 2000:8 to10). This work along with Jancovich et al’s approaches cult film as a type of counter culture. An alternative culture to Hollywood and its principles and practices in terms of film and also counter to the norms of the rest of western society. Although there are many differing views on what a cult film is, this is the definition that will be used and acknowledged throughout the rest of the study and is the template for what will be considered â€Å"Cult†. The definition above is not complete however as , although it does describe what elements the film has to have for the reader of the text to describe it as cult, it does not entirely show what cult fandom is, and as a result it is essential to read the text as what Barry Grant describes as the â€Å"supertext†. What is meant by the â€Å"supertext† is that more than just the text is studied and in relation to cult film its distribution, consumption and reception all play a pivotal role in its cult definition or as Grant himself describes â€Å"Because cult films, by common definition involve some intense devotion on the part of their audience† (Grant 2000:14) It is Grant’s view that the supertext, in the form of a cult film can transport the viewer away from their own reality by using a certain text to escape from their norms as Grant states in his work on The Rocky Horror Picture Show in which he contends that â€Å"it is a fundamentally ambiguous text that can comfortably accommodate opposed readings. Because of its well-known phenomenon of audience participation, the move also is perhaps the clearest demonstration of the cult films supertextual significance† (Grant 2000:19). This view ties in with audience reception theory and the Uses and Gratifications model to be exact. Throughout this study fans’ behavior will be looked at in relation to the Uses and Gratifications (UG) which is a body of approaches underpinned by the basic idea that people use texts and the media to gain specific gratifications out of them or as Blumler and Katz state It presents the use of media in terms of the gratification of social or psychological needs of the individual (Blumler Katz 1974). In their work on UG Jay G Blumler and Elihu Katz put forward four sub-sections when considering in what areas the audience were gaining gratification from media texts; these include surveillance, personal relationships, personal identity and diversion. The element that relates closest to the work on cult film and in particular Grant’s work is the Diversion section, which is described as a media text which allows the user an escape from reality. Also the section on personal identity is relevant to this study as it is described as a person creating their own identity from things they find attractive in the media. These two sub-sections will be considered when studying fans that use Donnie Darko as it demonstrates the cult fan’s relationship to the text as being active and is the closest media theory to the work already studied on cult film. Finally, in considering the phenomenon of online fandom, it is worth noting Matt Hills work on newsgroups which describes online fandom as something separate and new from offline fandom, or as Matt Hills states â€Å"The mediation of ‘new media’ must be addressed rather than treated as an invisible term within the romanticised ‘new’. (Hills 2002:172). This particular study was useful to me in that it was the first to open my eyes into the usefulness of the data online when studying fans. Here Henry Jenkins explains the wealth of data that can be accessed â€Å"the computer net groups allow us to observe self-defined and ongoing interpretive community.. {Whose} discussions occur without direct control or intervention by the researcher, yet in a form that is legitimately open to public scrutiny and analysis† (Jenkins 1995 cited in Hills 2002: 174). I found this quote particularly useful when deciding on methodology and despite having already decided on focus group research to research fans face–to-face it became apparent that the internet also would have a wealth of data to be analysed without any interference from academics, making the data more valid.Overall what I can take from the literature review is the following definition of cult that will be used as a template for the study of Donnie Darko. Having studied many different theories, it is the following template that will be used when considering fans in relation to the film â€Å"A cult film is characterised by its active and lively communal following. Highly committed and rebellious in their appreciation, cult audiences are frequently at odds with cultural conventions.Cult films transgress common notions of good and bad taste, and they challenge genre conventions and coherent storytelling. Among the techniques cult films us are intertextual references, gore, loose ends in storylines, or the creation of a sense of nostalgia† (Cultographies: Cult Definition: Web: Accessed 10/03/08) As it is this definition, combined with the Jancovich’s theory that cult films can be deliberately made in a marketing attempt to gain a cult following, that will be used in relation to fans using Donnie Darko as a supertext to see how film makers can now manipulate a fan base, using new media technology as a base. Project Aims The aim of this study will be to follow the case study of Donnie Darko, it being a contemporary example of a cult film, and map out its reception as a cult film from its early cinema release to the reception of both fans and critics alike of subsequent releases of further editions of the film. By mapping out the film in this way it will become clearer not only how it adheres to the cult formula but also how cult is established or even in some cases manipulated. By studying fans of the film in relation to Grant’s work on the supertext it becomes clear how the film makers have influenced the level of fandom involved and also perhaps most importantly the fans’ contribution. Methodology To maximise the potential for results that hold quality and validity throughout my case study of Donnie Darko a number of different methods are used to gain the evidence I need to conclude this study. The purpose of focus groups in this study is to question fans of Donnie Darko on their level of fanaticism and also to find out how they were influenced by the film to become such a fan. The constitution of the focus groups is derived from personal networks, family and other university goers. My target population has no class, race or gender requirements, targeting the fanatical fans of Donnie Darko and as the film itself when it was released was targeted at teens and tweens the source group is taken from university students and their peer group. Focus groups were determined to be the optimum methodology, representing a practical and relatively inexpensive way to do research due to lack of a budget; the participants can be sought out and assembled quickly. The insights that are needed to make are immediately available, the insights in this case is what makes the film so important to their lives and the reasons behind them buying into the Donnie Darko cult.The benefits of using a focus group rather than just a survey revolve around the degree of interviewing flexibility as; during the focus groups it is possible to play clips from different films and to be able to study body language and interactions between the fans in relation to the enjoyment of different elements of cult films. Arthur Asa Berger describes the usefulness of this particular technique â€Å"The aim of the discussion is not to build a consensus, but just the opposite- to find out what each member of the focus group thinks about the topic under discussion, to elicit from each person in the group his or her descriptions of behavior of interest.†(Berger 1991:91)The contents of the transcripts obtained from these focus groups are then read through and analysed using content analysis trying to draw distinction between a cult films being deliberately manufactured The attendees of the focus groups included five fans of the film that I had considered to be deeply involved with their fandom in regards to Donnie Darko. They were obtained by the sending of emails, Attached at Appendix B, to all students of Bath Spa University, asking them if they consider themselves fans of Donnie Darko and if they did if they would like to take part in a research project that would not take up much of their time. Their anonymity was also assured, as their gender was neither at issue nor who they were. Many replies were received,32 in all, and a response was sent back outlining the intentions of the study, how the findings would be used and what would be required of those willing to participate Potential participants were also sent a set of questions designed to test their level of fandom. These questions were derived from the largest Donnie Darko fan list (website) on the internet and required the respondent to possess a degree of knowledge necessary to being considered a â€Å"true† fan of Donnie Darko. The replies that were considered to most correspond with a high degree of fandom were subsequently selected to take part in the study. During the focus group session a number of set questions, Attached at Appendix A, were asked that were considered essential to my study. These questions were used as they facilitate an analysis of how the film makers attracted this cult market and what elements inspired the fans. The reasoning behind using the interview technique mixed with the focus group rather than questionnaire is that the interviews enabled participants to answer in their own words and language structure in favour of a mark out of 10 on a questionnaire sheet. This affords the findings a richer meaning as well as allowing for the clarification of certain meanings or, as Berger puts it, â€Å"The depth interview, on the other hand, is highly focused. It is conducted to get at matters such as hidden feelings or attitudes and beliefs that respondents may not be aware of or that are only dimly in their consciousness† (Berger 1991:57) The responses that are sought in order to prove the hypothesis that cult films are manufactured to directly gain a cult fan base are ones that relate to the film in terms of the definition of cult previously stated for example enjoyment of the loose plot or the sense of nostalgia that film brings to the viewer. Critical Reception Donnie Darko is firm cult fan favorite and has been named in numerous cult film list including coming 9th in Film Four’s 50 films to see before you die (channel 4: web). The film, set in 1988, takes place in a small town in the USA which is about to witness the end of the world. Donnie Darko (Jake Gyllenhaal) is a troubled youth who is plagued by visions of a giant rabbit named Frank who warns him of the worlds impending doom. Along with his girlfriend Gretchen (Jena Malone), and other people that help him along the way, he must try to understand the strange happenings at home, at school and his life. It is a struggle against time and life as he gets led closer to the end of the world. Donnie Darko was the debut film of director and writer Richard Kelly. It premiered at 2001 film festivals, generating a high level of â€Å"buzz† and picking up a number of awards; most notably the grand jury prize at the renowned Sundance Film Festival. The film generated a lot of hype arising from this festival buzz, and this hype in turn damaged the commercial success of the film. Film distributors were put off by the film’s multi-genre format and, arriving around the time of the terrorist acts of 9/11, the scenes of plane crashes at the start and end of the film, as one commentator states â€Å"Donnie Darko, a story of death and crashing jets, flopped in the US, not least because it came out just after 9/11† (Danny Leigh: 2004: Web). Because of this the film was considered a box office flop, only being able to amass $110,494(source IMDB) in its first weekend as it was only shown on 58 screens in the whole of the United States and, subsequently, only given a f ew weeks run, it was in danger of slipping off the radar. Under these situations, the press and critics may not have given Donnie Darko the attention and acclaim that is arguably deserved. At the time of release Richard Kelly had not explained that the film was open to interpretation and reviewers seemed at odds with the film, especially with what the film was trying to say or if indeed that the audience was required to create their own meaning. Searching for reviews of Donnie Darko it becomes apparent that few critics were agreed on the films agenda. The British Film Institute’s magazine Sight and Sound wrote that â€Å"(Donnie Darko is) about seemingly inconsequential but secretly connected details, and divine forces that compel characters to actions they dont understand† (Felperin 2002 web) Others do not share this view, with one reviewer deciding that Donnie Darko is merely a general teen movie and that â€Å"Donnie Darko may be the Everest of adolescent angst movies. A smart, emotionally troubled suburban teen wrestles with the usual stuff identity issues, bullies, well-meaning but clueless parents and various school absurdities† (W. Addiego, San Francisco Chronicle 2001) and some clearly articulating their confusion, asking â€Å"Is it a horror film? A black comic parable of Generation X angst? A teen drama with a psycho edge? If not, what the hell is it? Looking in my notebook, I see I have scribbled: David Lynch, The X Files, Prozac Nation, My So-Called Life, Ghost World†¦.none of these quite nails the genre, and perhaps more importantly the tone of this very strange movie.† (Bradshaw: 2002 Guardian: Web) The confusion that was exhibited by the film critics can be attributed to the multifaceted and multi genre format that can be seen in most cult films. Donnie Darko’s mix of sci-fi, horror and comedy is reminiscent of other recent cult films such as Starship Troopers and Critters and apparent in reviews of an older cult favourite The Evil Dead which state that â€Å"The influence of The Three Stooges on its comical creative trio of director Raimi, producer Robert Tapert, and lead actor Bruce Campbell gives the film a playful but unsettling feeling† (Glanville 2001: BBC: Web). It is this unusual mix that gives cult films an ingredient that mainstream Hollywood lacks, cult films can be seen to go against these ideologies and critics did not miss this within Donnie Darko from the outset, claiming that â€Å"The product of first-time writer-director Richard Kellys fertile imagination, Donnie Darko is one part 1980s Hollywood teen movie, one part sci-fi flick, with a dollop of David Lynch and a twist of Catcher in the Rye. If you were cynical you might call that cocktail the instant cult classic† (Slater 2002: BBC Web). With reviews such as this the Donnie Darko cult begins to take shape in the public consciousness whilst the fact that the film seems to have been designed as a cult is also recognised by the reviewers. After the critics have their say it is down to the fans to make what they want of the film and whether or not the reviewers have a direct influence on the fans when calling films cult is another issue, but they can be seen reacting to Donnie Darko as they had with numerous cult films to go before it. By looking at Donnie Darko, we are looking at the most contemporary film to become such a cult success and much of the onus has been pointed towards the increase in new media technology and in particular the internet. The internet has enabled large groups of fans in fan communities that can easily support, critique and help each other to come to understand films, especially Donnie Darko. Not only can fans talk to each other about the film, the interest in film can be seen world wide and the buzz created helps spread the word and in turn influencing many sales on DVD â€Å"Following the success at the Pioneer, midnight screenings popped up across the country, fueling domestic DVD sales to more than $10 million† (Burnett: 2004 indiewire Web) these sales have since gradually increased in America and gaining a huge following in the U.K. In much the same way as the critics were split and at odds with each other, the audience also lacked consensus, with some arguing that the plot holes and the general mystery around the film should be celebrated for making the film special and those who did not subscribe to this concept and expected the film to be resolved for them. Such oppositions in taste between fans and critics alike creates the perfect grounds for a cult to form and to be celebrated, this becomes clearer when studying the fan communities themselves. Study Phase 2 Returning to the internet, as represent the primary vehicle and forum for fans to communicate with each other, often in the form of dedicated fan sites. Such sites are created by individual wishing to share their fandom of the film with others and seeking to explain Donnie Darko in their own way. Perhaps the main source of discourse between fans takes place on interactive message boards, an online version of the ‘book club’ model for example. By analysing and describing the audience reception to Donnie Darko, it gives us additional insight into the level and type of fandom that is associated with cult films. More now than ever before, due to technological advances, fans are able to discuss and interpret their views on the film, and even doubters of the film can read the views of fans and be drawn into the mystery of the film. Such debates not only invoke discussion but allow the fans to obtain pleasure from the text and becoming more literate in it. The internet discussion rooms help breed the cult in more ways than the discussion itself. The debates between fans lead on to other events such as the viewing of the film again, evaluating and developing new ideas obtained from reading other fan theories. Subsequent development of their own new ideas to share with other fans is encouraged, not only adding value to their own reading of the text but also boosting the pleasure of the community as a whole. It can be argued that such close inspection and dismantling of the text, leads to the film being used in a way that was not the intention of its author, Richard Kelly, but it is this hardcore following of fans online that have created the success for Donnie Darko and without their keen following and debates the film would not be ascribed cult status. Here it may be pertinent to refer back to the idea of the supertext as we can identify the fans’ reception as showing the commitment and passion required to form the cult of Donnie Darko using the internet as the foundation for the fans personal but maybe imagined affiliation with the film. When searching the internet, on a search engine, typing in â€Å"Donnie Darko Fansite† brings up thousands and thousands of pages and, after reading through many of them, it seeme